16th Century and earlier:
Alchemy in Medieval Europe
Because of its strong connections to the Greek and
Roman
cultures, alchemy was rather easily accepted into Christian philosophy,
and Medieval European alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic
alchemical knowledge. Gerbert of Aurillac, who was later to become Pope
Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to
Europe from Spain. Later men such as Adelard of Bath, who lived in the
12th century, brought additional learning. But until the 13th century
the moves were mainly assimilative. (Hollister p. 124, 294)
In this period there appeared some deviations from the Augustinian
principles of earlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm
(1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede
rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had
believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism
were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His
views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. Peter
Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of
Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the
West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic
universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's
consciousness. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical
contradictions. (Hollister, p. 287-8)
Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the
scientific
theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took
Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations,
experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations.
Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian
thinking. (Hollister pp. 294-5)
Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) and Thomas Aquinas
(1225–1274)
were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling
the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a
great deal of work in developing the scientific method. He even went as
far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through
logical reasoning, and, since reason could not run in opposition to
God, reason must be compatible with theology. (Hollister p. 290-4,
355). This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that
universals were found through divine illumination alone. Magnus and
Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical
theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except
that these two did little in the way of experimentation.
The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon. His work
did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and
Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (1214–1294) was an
Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to
alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than
rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more
important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that
they acquire knowledge of things: authority, reasoning, Alchemy in
Medieval Europe
Painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771.Because of its strong
connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily
accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists
extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. Gerbert of Aurillac,
who was later to become Pope Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the
first to bring Islamic science to Europe from Spain. Later men such as
Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, brought additional
learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly
assimilative. (Hollister p. 124, 294)
In this period there appeared some deviations from the Augustinian
principles of earlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm
(1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede
rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had
believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism
were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His
views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. Peter
Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of
Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the
West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic
universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's
consciousness. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical
contradictions. (Hollister, p. 287-8)
Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the
scientific
theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took
Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations,
experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations.
Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian
thinking. (Hollister pp. 294-5)
Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) and Thomas Aquinas
(1225–1274)
were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling
the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a
great deal of work in developing the scientific method. He even went as
far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through
logical reasoning, and, since reason could not run in opposition to
God, reason must be compatible with theology. (Hollister p. 290-4,
355). This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that
universals were found through divine illumination alone. Magnus and
Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical
theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except
that these two did little in the way of experimentation.
The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon. His work
did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and
Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (1214–1294) was an
Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to
alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than
rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more
important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that
they acquire knowledge of things: authority, reasoning, and experience;
only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect."
(Bacon p. 367) "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all
other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from general
principles would never have discovered." (Hollister p. 294-5) Roger
Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the
philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will
remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will
also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the
corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many
centuries." The idea of immortality was replaced with the notion of
long life; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and
prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did
not mesh with Christian theology. (Edwardes p. 37-8)
Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was
the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of
the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's
time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were
members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the
parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived
works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a
good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was
interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a
rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to
learn about rationalism. (Edwardes p. 24-7)
So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a
fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the
macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed
that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an
effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of
purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul.)
They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described
above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas
in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the
uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively
experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about
how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around
their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall
of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be
reunited with God. (Burckhardt p. 149)
In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change.
William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the
Thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view,
widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He
could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not
incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus
limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy
from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. (Hollister p.
335) Pope John XXII in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy,
which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the
Art. (Edwardes, p.49) The climate changes, Black plague, and increase
in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also
served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general.
Nicholas Flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his
tomb in the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris.Alchemy was kept
alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he
was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel
lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next
phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his
predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around
the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have
found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes
and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out
the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical
knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the
philosophers' stone. (Burckhardt pp.170-181)
Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like
Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and
the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic
allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the
art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the
purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold
(in which they believed elemental mercury, or 'quicksilver', played a
crucial role). These men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by
many, and were often persecuted for their practices. (Edwardes pp.
50-75)(Norton pp lxiii-lxvii)
One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century
was named Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. This alchemist believed himself
to be a wizard and was capable of summoning spirits. His influence was
negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred
to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to
change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic. He did
keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including
experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory,
which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite
of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his
views often came into conflict with the church. (Edwardes
p.56-9)(Wilson p.23-9)
[edit]
Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance
European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the
Renaissance. The era also saw a flourishing of con artists who would
use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the
transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret
knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment
— would
surely lead to that goal.
The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus
Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541)
who
cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had
accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and
experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic
traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and
Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much
Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically
meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of
Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and
scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45)
Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and
wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and
silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue
and power may lie in medicines." (Edwardes, p.47) His hermetical views
were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man
the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different
from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of
soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain
balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the
body had chemical remedies that could cure them. (Debus &
Multhauf,
p.6-12) While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as
Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic
idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well.
This involve human transmutation.
"Alchemik Michal Sedziwój", oil on board by Jan Matejko, 73
x
130 cm, Museum of Arts in Lódz.In England, the topic of
alchemy
in that time frame is often associated with Doctor John Dee (13 July
1527 – December, 1608), better known for his role as
astrologer,
cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to Queen Elizabeth
I. Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was
interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (Monas
Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the Kabbala. Dee's associate Edward
Kelley — who claimed to converse with angels through a
crystal
ball and to own a powder that would turn mercury into gold —
may
have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan.
Another lesser known alchemist was Michael Sendivogius (Michal
Sedziwój, 1566 - 1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher,
medical
doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he
distilled oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before
Scheele and Priestley, by warming nitre (saltpetre). He thought of the
gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this
method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to
Cornelius Drebbel. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a
submarine.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), better known for his astronomical
and
astrological investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory
built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute.
and experience; only the last is effective and able to bring peace to
the intellect." (Bacon p. 367) "Experimental Science controls the
conclusions of all other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning
from general principles would never have discovered." (Hollister p.
294-5) Roger Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search
for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine
which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser
metals will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the
corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many
centuries." The idea of immortality was replaced with the notion of
long life; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and
prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did
not mesh with Christian theology. (Edwardes p. 37-8)
Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was
the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of
the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's
time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were
members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the
parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived
works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a
good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was
interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a
rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to
learn about rationalism. (Edwardes p. 24-7)
So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a
fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the
macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed
that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an
effAlchemy in Medieval Europe
Painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771.Because of its strong
connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily
accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists
extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. Gerbert of Aurillac,
who was later to become Pope Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the
first to bring Islamic science to Europe from Spain. Later men such as
Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, brought additional
learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly
assimilative. (Hollister p. 124, 294)
In this period there appeared some deviations from the Augustinian
principles of earlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm
(1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede
rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had
believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism
were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His
views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. Peter
Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of
Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the
West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic
universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's
consciousness. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical
contradictions. (Hollister, p. 287-8)
Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the
scientific
theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took
Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations,
experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations.
Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian
thinking. (Hollister pp. 294-5)
Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) and Thomas Aquinas
(1225–1274)
were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling
the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a
great deal of work in developing the scientific method. He even went as
far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through
logical reasoning, and, since reason could not run in opposition to
God, reason must be compatible with theology. (Hollister p. 290-4,
355). This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that
universals were found through divine illumination alone. Magnus and
Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical
theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except
that these two did little in the way of experimentation.
The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon. His work
did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and
Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (1214–1294) was an
Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to
alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than
rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more
important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that
they acquire knowledge of things: authority, reasoning, and experience;
only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect."
(Bacon p. 367) "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all
other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from general
principles would never have discovered." (Hollister p. 294-5) Roger
Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the
philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will
remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will
also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the
corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many
centuries." The idea of immortality was replaced with the notion of
long life; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and
prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did
not mesh with Christian theology. (Edwardes p. 37-8)
Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was
the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of
the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's
time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were
members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the
parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived
works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a
good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was
interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a
rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to
learn about rationalism. (Edwardes p. 24-7)
So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a
fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the
macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed
that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an
effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of
purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul.)
They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described
above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas
in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the
uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively
experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about
how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around
their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall
of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be
reunited with God. (Burckhardt p. 149)
In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change.
William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the
Thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view,
widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He
could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not
incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus
limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy
from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. (Hollister p.
335) Pope John XXII in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy,
which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the
Art. (Edwardes, p.49) The climate changes, Black plague, and increase
in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also
served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general.
Nicholas Flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his
tomb in the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris.Alchemy was kept
alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he
was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel
lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next
phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his
predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around
the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have
found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes
and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out
the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical
knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the
philosophers' stone. (Burckhardt pp.170-181)
Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like
Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and
the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic
allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the
art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the
purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold
(in which they believed elemental mercury, or 'quicksilver', played a
crucial role). These men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by
many, and were often persecuted for their practices. (Edwardes pp.
50-75)(Norton pp lxiii-lxvii)
One of these men who emerged at the beginningAlchemy in Medieval Europe
Painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771.Because of its strong
connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily
accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists
extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. Gerbert of Aurillac,
who was later to become Pope Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the
first to bring Islamic science to Europe from Spain. Later men such as
Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, brought additional
learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly
assimilative. (Hollister p. 124, 294)
In this period there appeared some deviations from the Augustinian
principles of earlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm
(1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede
rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had
believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism
were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His
views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. Peter
Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of
Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the
West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic
universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's
consciousness. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical
contradictions. (Hollister, p. 287-8)
Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the
scientific
theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took
Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations,
experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations.
Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian
thinking. (Hollister pp. 294-5)
Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) and Thomas Aquinas
(1225–1274)
were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling
the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a
great deal of work in developing the scientific method. He even went as
far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through
logical reasoning, and, since reason could not run in opposition to
God, reason must be compatible with theology. (Hollister p. 290-4,
355). This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that
universals were found through divine illumination alone. Magnus and
Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical
theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except
that these two did little in the way of experimentation.
The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon. His work
did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and
Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (1214–1294) was an
Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to
alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than
rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more
important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that
they acquire knowledge of things: authority, reasoning, and experience;
only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect."
(Bacon p. 367) "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all
other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from general
principles would never have discovered." (Hollister p. 294-5) Roger
Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the
philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will
remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will
also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the
corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many
centuries." The idea of immortality was replaced with the notion of
long life; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and
prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did
not mesh with Christian theology. (Edwardes p. 37-8)
Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was
the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of
the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's
time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were
members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the
parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived
works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a
good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was
interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a
rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to
learn about rationalism. (Edwardes p. 24-7)
So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a
fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the
macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed
that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an
effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of
purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul.)
They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described
above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas
in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the
uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively
experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about
how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around
their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall
of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be
reunited with God. (Burckhardt p. 149)
In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change.
William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the
Thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view,
widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He
could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not
incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus
limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy
from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. (Hollister p.
335) Pope John XXII in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy,
which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the
Art. (Edwardes, p.49) The climate changes, Black plague, and increase
in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also
served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general.
Nicholas Flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his
tomb in the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris.Alchemy was kept
alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he
was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel
lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next
phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his
predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around
the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have
found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes
and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out
the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical
knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the
philosophers' stone. (Burckhardt pp.170-181)
Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like
Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and
the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic
allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the
art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the
purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold
(in which they believed elemental mercury, or 'quicksilver', played a
crucial role). These men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by
many, and were often persecuted for their practices. (Edwardes pp.
50-75)(Norton pp lxiii-lxvii)
One of these men who emerged at the beginningAlchemy in Medieval Europe
Painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771.Because of its strong
connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily
accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists
extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. Gerbert of Aurillac,
who was later to become Pope Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the
first to bring Islamic science to Europe from Spain. Later men such as
Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, brought additional
learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly
assimilative. (Hollister p. 124, 294)
In this period there appeared some deviations from the Augustinian
principles of earlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm
(1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede
rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had
believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism
were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His
views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. Peter
Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of
Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the
West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic
universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's
consciousness. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical
contradictions. (Hollister, p. 287-8)
Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the
scientific
theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took
Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations,
experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations.
Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian
thinking. (Hollister pp. 294-5)
Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) and Thomas Aquinas
(1225–1274)
were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling
the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a
great deal of work in developing the scientific method. He even went as
far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through
logical reasoning, and, since reason could not run in opposition to
God, reason must be compatible with theology. (Hollister p. 290-4,
355). This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that
universals were found through divine illumination alone. Magnus and
Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical
theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except
that these two did little in the way of experimentation.
The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon. His work
did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and
Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (1214–1294)
wasAlchemy
in Medieval Europe
Painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771.Because of its strong
connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily
accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists
extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. Gerbert of Aurillac,
who was later to become Pope Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the
first to bring Islamic science to Europe from Spain. Later men such as
Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, brought additional
learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly
assimilative. (Hollister p. 124, 294)
In this period there appeared some deviations from the Augustinian
principles of earlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm
(1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede
rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had
believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism
were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His
views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. Peter
Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of
Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the
West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic
universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's
consciousness. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical
contradictions. (Hollister, p. 287-8)
Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the
scientific
theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took
Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations,
experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations.
Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian
thinking. (Hollister pp. 294-5)
Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) and Thomas Aquinas
(1225–1274)
were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling
the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a
great deal of work in developing the scientific method. He even went as
far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through
logical reasoning, and, since reason could not run in opposition to
God, reason must be compatible with theology. (Hollister p. 290-4,
355). This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that
universals were found through divine illumination alone. Magnus and
Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical
theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except
that these two did little in the way of experimentation.
The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon. His work
did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and
Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (1214–1294) was an
Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to
alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than
rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more
important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that
they acquire knowledge of things: authority, reasoning, and experience;
only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect."
(Bacon p. 367) "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all
other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from general
principles would never have discovered." (Hollister p. 294-5) Roger
Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the
philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will
remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will
also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the
corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many
centuries." The idea of immortality was replaced with the notion of
long life; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and
prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did
not mesh with Christian theology. (Edwardes p. 37-8)
Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was
the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of
the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's
time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were
members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the
parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived
works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a
good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was
interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a
rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to
learn about rationalism. (Edwardes p. 24-7)
So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a
fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the
macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed
that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an
effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of
purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul.)
They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described
above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas
in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the
uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively
experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about
how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around
their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall
of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be
reunited with God. (Burckhardt p. 149)
In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change.
William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the
Thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view,
widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He
could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not
incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus
limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy
from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. (Hollister p.
335) Pope John XXII in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy,
which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the
Art. (Edwardes, p.49) The climate changes, Black plague, and increase
in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also
served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general.
Nicholas Flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his
tomb in the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris.Alchemy was kept
alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he
was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel
lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next
phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his
predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around
the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have
found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes
and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out
the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical
knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the
philosophers' stone. (Burckhardt pp.170-181)
Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like
Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and
the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic
allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the
art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the
purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold
(in which they believed elemental mercury, or 'quicksilver', played a
crucial role). These men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by
many, and were often persecuted for their practices. (Edwardes pp.
50-75)(Norton pp lxiii-lxvii)
One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century
was named Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. This alchemist believed himself
to be a wizard and was capable of summoning spirits. His influence was
negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred
to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to
change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic. He did
keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including
experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory,
which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite
of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his
views often came into conflict with the church. (Edwardes
p.56-9)(Wilson p.23-9)
[edit]
Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance
European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the
Renaissance. The era also saw a flourishing of con artists who would
use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the
transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret
knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment
— would
surely lead to that goal.
The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus
Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541)
who
cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had
accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and
experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic
traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and
Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much
Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically
meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of
Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and
scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45)
Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and
wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and
silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue
and power may lie in medicines." (Edwardes, p.47) His hermetical views
were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man
the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different
from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of
soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain
balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the
body had chemical remedies that could cure them. (Debus &
Multhauf,
p.6-12) While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as
Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic
idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well.
This involve human transmutation.
"Alchemik Michal Sedziwój", oil on board by Jan Matejko, 73
x
130 cm, Museum of Arts in Lódz.In England, the topic of
alchemy
in that time frame is often associated with Doctor John Dee (13 July
1527 – December, 1608), better known for his role as
astrologer,
cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to Queen Elizabeth
I. Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was
interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (Monas
Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the Kabbala. Dee's associate Edward
Kelley — who claimed to converse with angels through a
crystal
ball and to own a powder that would turn mercury into gold —
may
have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan.
Another lesser known alchemist was Michael Sendivogius (Michal
Sedziwój, 1566 - 1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher,
medical
doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he
distilled oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before
Scheele and Priestley, by warming nitre (saltpetre). He thought of the
gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this
method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to
Cornelius Drebbel. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a
submarine.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), better known for his astronomical
and
astrological investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory
built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute.
an Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in
addition to alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world
rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that
experimentation was more important than reasoning: "Of the three ways
in which men think that they acquire knowledge of things: authority,
reasoning, and experience; only the last is effective and able to bring
peace to the intellect." (Bacon p. 367) "Experimental Science controls
the conclusions of all other sciences. It reveals truths which
reasoning from general principles would never have discovered."
(Hollister p. 294-5) Roger Bacon has also been attributed with
originating the search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of
life: "That medicine which will remove all impurities and
corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of
the wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human
life may be prolonged for many centuries." The idea of immortality was
replaced with the notion of long life; after all, man's time on Earth
was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God.
Immortality on Earth did not mesh with Christian theology. (Edwardes p.
37-8)
Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was
the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of
the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's
time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were
members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the
parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived
works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a
good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was
interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a
rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to
learn about rationalism. (Edwardes p. 24-7)
So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a
fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the
macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed
that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an
effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of
purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul.)
They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described
above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas
in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the
uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively
experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about
how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around
their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall
of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be
reunited with God. (Burckhardt p. 149)
In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change.
William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the
Thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view,
widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He
could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not
incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus
limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy
from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. (Hollister p.
335) Pope John XXII in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy,
which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the
Art. (Edwardes, p.49) The climate changes, Black plague, and increase
in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also
served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general.
Nicholas Flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his
tomb in the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris.Alchemy was kept
alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he
was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel
lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next
phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his
predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around
the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have
found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes
and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out
the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical
knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the
philosophers' stone. (Burckhardt pp.170-181)
Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like
Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and
the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic
allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the
art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the
purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold
(in which they believed elemental mercury, or 'quicksilver', played a
crucial role). These men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by
many, and were often persecuted for their practices. (Edwardes pp.
50-75)(Norton pp lxiii-lxvii)
One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century
was named Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. This alchemist believed himself
to be a wizard and was capable of summoning spirits. His influence was
negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred
to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to
change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic. He did
keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including
experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory,
which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite
of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his
views often came into conflict with the church. (Edwardes
p.56-9)(Wilson p.23-9)
[edit]
Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance
European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the
Renaissance. The era also saw a flourishing of con artists who would
use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the
transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret
knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment
— would
surely lead to that goal.
The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus
Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541)
who
cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had
accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and
experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic
traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and
Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much
Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically
meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of
Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and
scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45)
Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and
wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and
silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue
and power may lie in medicines." (Edwardes, p.47) His hermetical views
were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man
the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different
from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of
soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain
balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the
body had chemical remedies that could cure them. (Debus &
Multhauf,
p.6-12) While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as
Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic
idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well.
This involve human transmutation.
"Alchemik Michal Sedziwój", oil on board by Jan Matejko, 73
x
130 cm, Museum of Arts in Lódz.In England, the topic of
alchemy
in that time frame is often associated with Doctor John Dee (13 July
1527 – December, 1608), better known for his role as
astrologer,
cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to Queen Elizabeth
I. Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was
interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (Monas
Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the Kabbala. Dee's associate Edward
Kelley — who claimed to converse with angels through a
crystal
ball and to own a powder that would turn mercury into gold —
may
have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan.
Another lesser known alchemist was Michael Sendivogius (Michal
Sedziwój, 1566 - 1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher,
medical
doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he
distilled oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before
Scheele and Priestley, by warming nitre (saltpetre). He thought of the
gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this
method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to
Cornelius Drebbel. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a
submarine.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), better known for his astronomical
and
astrological investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory
built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute.
of the sixteenth century was named Heinrich Cornelius
Agrippa.
This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and was capable of
summoning spirits. His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he
produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later years.
Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical
philosophy to an occultist magic. He did keep alive the philosophies of
the earlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology,
etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea of alchemy
as an occultist belief. In spite of all this, Agrippa still considered
himself a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the
church. (Edwardes p.56-9)(Wilson p.23-9)
[edit]
Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance
European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the
Renaissance. The era also saw a flourishing of con artists who would
use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the
transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret
knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment
— would
surely lead to that goal.
The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus
Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541)
who
cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had
accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and
experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic
traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and
Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much
Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically
meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of
Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and
scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45)
Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and
wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and
silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue
and power may lie in medicines." (Edwardes, p.47) His hermetical views
were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man
the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different
from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of
soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain
balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the
body had chemical remedies that could cure them. (Debus &
Multhauf,
p.6-12) While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as
Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic
idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well.
This involve human transmutation.
"Alchemik Michal Sedziwój", oil on board by Jan Matejko, 73
x
130 cm, Museum of Arts in Lódz.In England, the topic of
alchemy
in that time frame is often associated with Doctor John Dee (13 July
1527 – December, 1608), better known for his role as
astrologer,
cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to Queen Elizabeth
I. Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was
interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (Monas
Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the Kabbala. Dee's associate Edward
Kelley — who claimed to converse with angels through a
crystal
ball and to own a powder that would turn mercury into gold —
may
have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan.
Another lesser known alchemist was Michael Sendivogius (Michal
Sedziwój, 1566 - 1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher,
medical
doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he
distilled oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before
Scheele and Priestley, by warming nitre (saltpetre). He thought of the
gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this
method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to
Cornelius Drebbel. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a
submarine.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), better known for his astronomical
and
astrological investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory
built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute.
of the sixteenth century was named Heinrich Cornelius
Agrippa.
This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and was capable of
summoning spirits. His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he
produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later years.
Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical
philosophy to an occultist magic. He did keep alive the philosophies of
the earlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology,
etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea of alchemy
as an occultist belief. In spite of all this, Agrippa still considered
himself a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the
church. (Edwardes p.56-9)(Wilson p.23-9)
[edit]
Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance
European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the
Renaissance. The era also saw a flourishing of con artists who would
use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the
transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret
knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment
— would
surely lead to that goal.
The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus
Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541)
who
cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had
accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and
experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic
traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and
Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much
Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically
meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of
Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and
scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45)
Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and
wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and
silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue
and power may lie in medicines." (Edwardes, p.47) His hermetical views
were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man
the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different
from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of
soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain
balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the
body had chemical remedies that could cure them. (Debus &
Multhauf,
p.6-12) While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as
Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic
idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well.
This involve human transmutation.
"Alchemik Michal Sedziwój", oil on board by Jan Matejko, 73
x
130 cm, Museum of Arts in Lódz.In England, the topic of
alchemy
in that time frame is often associated with Doctor John Dee (13 July
1527 – December, 1608), better known for his role as
astrologer,
cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to Queen Elizabeth
I. Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was
interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (Monas
Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the Kabbala. Dee's associate Edward
Kelley — who claimed to converse with angels through a
crystal
ball and to own a powder that would turn mercury into gold —
may
have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan.
Another lesser known alchemist was Michael Sendivogius (Michal
Sedziwój, 1566 - 1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher,
medical
doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he
distilled oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before
Scheele and Priestley, by warming nitre (saltpetre). He thought of the
gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this
method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to
Cornelius Drebbel. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a
submarine.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), better known for his astronomical
and
astrological investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory
built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute.
ect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of purifying
gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul.) They
believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described
above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas
in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the
uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively
experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about
how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around
their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall
of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be
reunited with God. (Burckhardt p. 149)
In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change.
William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the
Thomist view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view,
widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He
could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not
incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus
limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy
from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. (Hollister p.
335) Pope John XXII in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy,
which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the
Art. (Edwardes, p.49) The climate changes, Black plague, and increase
in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also
served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general.
Nicholas Flamel had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his
tomb in the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris.Alchemy was kept
alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he
was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel
lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next
phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his
predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around
the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have
found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes
and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out
the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical
knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the
philosophers' stone. (Burckhardt pp.170-181)
Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like
Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and
the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic
allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the
art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the
purification of the soul to mean the transmutation of lead into gold
(in which they believed elemental mercury, or 'quicksilver', played a
crucial role). These men were viewed as magicians and sorcerers by
many, and were often persecuted for their practices. (Edwardes pp.
50-75)(Norton pp lxiii-lxvii)
One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century
was named Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. This alchemist believed himself
to be a wizard and was capable of summoning spirits. His influence was
negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred
to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to
change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic. He did
keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including
experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory,
which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite
of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his
views often came into conflict with the church. (Edwardes
p.56-9)(Wilson p.23-9)
Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance
European alchemy continued in this way through the
dawning
of the Renaissance. The era also saw a flourishing of con artists who
would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the
transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret
knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment
— would
surely lead to that goal.
The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus
Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541)
who
cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had
accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and
experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic
traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and
Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much
Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically
meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of
Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and
scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45)
Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and
wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and
silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue
and power may lie in medicines." (Edwardes, p.47) His hermetical views
were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man
the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different
from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of
soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain
balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the
body had chemical remedies that could cure them. (Debus &
Multhauf,
p.6-12) While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as
Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic
idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well.
This involve human transmutation.
"Alchemik Michal Sedziwój", oil on board by Jan Matejko, 73
x
130 cm, Museum of Arts in Lódz.In England, the topic of
alchemy
in that time frame is often associated with Doctor John Dee (13 July
1527 – December, 1608), better known for his role as
astrologer,
cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to Queen Elizabeth
I. Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was
interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (Monas
Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the Kabbala. Dee's associate Edward
Kelley — who claimed to converse with angels through a
crystal
ball and to own a powder that would turn mercury into gold —
may
have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan.
Another lesser known alchemist was Michael Sendivogius (Michal
Sedziwój, 1566 - 1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher,
medical
doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he
distilled oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before
Scheele and Priestley, by warming nitre (saltpetre). He thought of the
gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this
method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to
Cornelius Drebbel. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a
submarine.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), better known for his astronomical
and
astrological investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory
built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute.
The words of
Father Aristeus to his son
Simon Forman -
Of the Division of Chaos
An Alchemical
Mass
Alchemy in the
English State Papers
The Golden
Tractate of Hermes
Alchemical
Catechism of Baron Tschoudy
The Mirror of
Alchemy - Roger Bacon
Bloomfield's
Blossoms
The practise of
Mary the Prophetess in the Alchymicall Art
An Alchemical
poem by Thomas Rawlin
Summary of the
Rosary of Arnold de Villa Nova
Pontanus -
Epistle on the mineral fire
The Ripley
Scroll
The Turba
philosophorum
Marsilio Ficino
on the alchemical art
Pontanus - The
Secret Fire
Paracelsus -
The Book Concerning the Tincture of the Philosophers
Paracelsus -
The Aurora of the philosophers
Petrus Bonus A
form and method of perfecting base metals
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